The Zimmerman Note

  On January 16th, 1917, German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmerman sent a coded telegram to the German minister in Mexico that revealed a plan to renew Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (USW) and propose an alliance to Mexico. In exchange for initiating an attack on the United States, Germany promised to allow Mexico to annex parts of the American Southwest (Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico). In the Zimmerman Note, the Germans intended for Mexico to go to war with America in hopes that America would divert their attention to protecting their homeland and as a result, slow down their shipments of arms, munitions, and troops to the Allied powers. 

  The Germans had a longstanding history of backing up Mexico: in the 1914 Ypiranga Incident, Germany armed, funded, and even advised the Mexicans on military strategies. The Germans promoted conflicts between Mexico and America to little success: President Wilson did retaliate a few times (invasion of Veracruz, capture of Pancho Villa, etc.), but it wasn’t enough to form a war, as peace conventions quickly deescalated the situation.

  The secret to the British’s ability to decode the telegram was that they had already started intelligence efforts when the war seemed imminent in 1914. They sent ships to cut Germany’s trans-atlantic cables and six other underwater cables that sent messages from Germany to Britain. Soon after the war began, Britain was able to tap into German messages sent over overseas cable lines borrowed from neutral countries. 

  In 1915, Russia sent over a copy of the German naval codebook retrieved from a drowned sailor and a copy of the German diplomatic code stolen from a German diplomat’s luggage. This information allowed the British to get a head start on decoding German messages. By 1917, most German messages could be deciphered by the British cryptographic office known as “Room 40”.

  Since many of their lines were cut, the only way Germany could send their telegram to Mexico was through a relay system: the telegram would be sent to the United States embassy office in Denmark, sent to the United States, then sent to Mexico. However, the Germans were caught in a precarious situation of relying on the United States to send their coded message to Mexico, as there was a large possibility the American telegraphers would find the coded messages alarming. 

  Soon after the Zimmerman Telegram was sent, the British decoded the telegram and sent it to the United States. By March 1st, its scandalous contents were spilled all over the front covers of national newspapers. Although most of the U.S. believed in neutrality and isolationism, the Zimmerman Telegram set off the first nationwide demand for war with Germany.

  Along with the sinking of several passenger boats, submarines, and other American vessels, the Zimmerman Note finally pushed the U.S. over the brink. Since the Zimmerman Note provided fresh evidence of German aggression, President Wilson abandoned his policy of neutrality and asked Congress to declare war on Germany and the Central Powers. Four days later, the U.S. cast its lot with the Allied Powers and went to war.

Sources:

- https://www.theworldwar.org/explore/centennial-commemoration/us-enters-war/zimmermann-telegram

- https://www.history.com/news/what-was-the-zimmermann-telegram

- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram

- https://www.history.com/news/the-secret-history-of-the-zimmermann-telegram

- https://www.britannica.com/event/Zimmermann-Telegram

From Trains to Twitter

Presidential communication has taken many forms, ever since the first presidential address by George Washington and up to President Trump's tweets today. The real question is, how does the difference in medium change the reality of the situation?

On July 1st, 2017, Donald Trump tweeted, "My use of social media is not Presidential - it's MODERN DAY PRESIDENTIAL." This could be argued in both ways, pro-Twitter and anti-Twitter. Yes, technology has evolved and the world has rapidly changed, which brings with it new forms of communication. But when we look back at, say, President Kennedy's "We choose to go to the moon" speech, everything looks different. In 1962, there was advanced communication - televisions, radios, and ways to transverse through space, yet President Kennedy still chose to present his speech at Rice University, to a live audience. This speech was over 17 minutes long, filled with passion and love for the country.

Some of President Trump's tweets have been considerably less eloquent, and definitely never reaching the height and fame of past presidents' speeches. His most liked tweet, as of November, 2016, was as response to Hillary Clinton's attack, "Delete your account." President Trump responded with "How long did it take your staff of 823 people to think that up--and where are your 33,000 emails that you deleted?" For the most liked tweet, you would expect it to be uplifting and inspirational, but in President Trump's case, it isn't.

It will take years until we reach the next form of communication. Only then will we really know what tweeting presidential announcements was like and what effect it had on the world. From Woodrow Wilson's addresses by train, to John F. Kennedy's inspirational live addresses, and now, to President Trump's tweets, the medium of presidential communication still changes, for the better or for the worse.


Sources:
https://twitter.com/i/moments/795695925566050304?lang=en
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon

https://apple.news/ApQVt2j-_T2icWnnZOJZWBQ

William Monroe Trotter

William Monroe Trotter was born on April 7, 1872 to parents James Monroe Trotter and Virginia Isaacs Trotter. He was the third child, the first to survive infancy. His father James was born a slave to a slave mother and a white father, who eventually freed them and sent them to a black community in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was the first man of color to be employed to the U.S. Postal Service. When the elder Trotter supported Cleveland for president, he was appointed as Recorder of Deeds for D.C. after he won. William's mother Virginia was born free to a former enslaved mother and a free born person of color, who purchased Virginia's mother's freedom.

Trotter graduated as valedictorian and class president from the all-white Hyde Park High school. He moved on to Harvard University, where he was awarded merit scholarships and became the first man of color to be awarded with a Phi Beta Kappa key at Harvard. While at Harvard, he lead the Total Abstinence League, which was a temperance organization, along with becoming active in the Baptist Church.

Trotter had very strong views on racial equality, which were seen in a paper in 1899 where he called on African Americans to continue pursuing higher educations. At the same time, another very prominent figure in the African American community, Booker T. Washington, was presenting many different ideas. Washington believed that African Americans in the South should not try to obtain political rights but rather be provided with economic opportunities and basic rights. He believed that if they proved their own worth they would eventually be given all rights. However, Trotter had opposing views, believing that it was necessary to fight for equal treatment because it would eventually lead to more benefits. 

In 1901, Trotter's founded the Boston Literary and Historical Association and joined the Massachusetts Racial Protective Association, two very racial activist groups. Trotter began giving protest speeches, in which he publicly attacked Washington's stance. Along with George W. Forbes, he founded the Guardian, a weekly newspaper which was a platform for speaking out for racial equality. Publications on the Guardian consistently spoke against Washington and his ideas.

In 1905, Trotter, along with W.E.B. Dubois founded the Niagara Movement, a civil-rights group dedicated to change for African Americans. It demanded things such as an end to segregation and discrimination in unions, courts and public accomodations, along with economic and educational equality. This movement eventually led to the creation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP, in 1909, an organization still exists today. The NAACP included both whites and blacks, and its mission is to "secure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate race-based discrimination."

Later on, Trotter mounted other campaigns, including one against the play The Clansman. It portrayed the Ku Klux Klan in a very positive and heroic light, but due to the protests, it was eventually closed in production. Similarly, he also protested The Birth of a Nation, a film adapted from The Clansman. 

After the death of his wife in 1918, he became much less active, but still wrote for The Guardian. He eventually died in 1934, at the age of 62.



Sources:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/niagara-movement
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Monroe_Trotter
https://www.history.com/topics/civil-rights-movement/naacp
https://www.naacp.org/about-us/

Zimmermann Telegram

The Zimmermann note contributed significantly to the push for America's involvement in World War I, as it resulted in America's distrust in the German government. In January 1917, a German secretary named Arthur Zimmermann sent off a secret letter to German Ambassador Heinrich Von Eckardt in Mexico.

In his note, Zimmermann provided instructions for Von Eckardt. He told Von Eckardt to use Mexicans to convince Japan to side with Germany. In addition, Zimmermann instructed Eckardt to propose a Mexican-German alliance if the United States were to enter the war. He stated that Germans would support Mexico in an attack against the United States both financially and militarily. In return, Mexico would be able to reconquer territory in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.

The note had some trouble reaching Von Eckardt. Since Germany didn't have a telegraph line that passed directly to North America, the note was passed through British lines. British decoders were monitoring the lines from Germany, and intercepted the note before it arrived in Mexico. After decoding the encrypted message, the British sent it to the United States to inform President Wilson. The note's information flooded newspapers throughout the United States. It immediately caused outrage at Zimmermann's plans against the nation and a nationwide demand for war against Germany.

Germany and the United States were not on great terms in the first place due to Germany's resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and attacked on US ships. The Zimmermann note became the turning point for US entry in the war, as it was a sign of Germany's anger towards the United States. On April 2, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany and other countries of the Central Powers.

https://www.history.com/news/what-was-the-zimmermann-telegram
http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=3900
https://www.britannica.com/event/Zimmermann-Telegram
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-38581861
https://www.thoughtco.com/world-war-i-zimmerman-telegram-2361417

What's In Your Sausage?

The jarring storyline of the industrial era book, The Jungle, published by Upton Sinclair in early 1905, reveals the horrific lives lead by industrial workers. The plot follows a promising Lithuanian immigrant, Jurgis Rudkus, and his family, as they endure life in the factories in hopes of achieving the American dream. Through the harsh living conditions, political corruption, cheating, death, low wages, constant changing of jobs, and alcoholism, Sinclair exposes the trials that many factory workers, especially immigrants, face during that period.

Sinclair brings to light many issues with factory life; for example, he highlights the need for workers protection when Jurgis is injured at work and left bedridden without pay, and reveals the dangerous working conditions many workers faced through the example of the fertilizer plant, where the harsh chemicals used in the factory killed off employees within a matter of years. Sinclair also exposes the terrible treatment of women in factories, like when Jurgis' wife, Ona, is forced to return to work just two weeks after giving birth, and when she is raped by her boss, no criminal investigation is pursued, leaving her boss scot-free.

One scene from the book that stuck out, in particular, was the way that the slaughterhouse meat was packaged. The filth on the factory floor, such as the fallen meat, spit and chewed tobacco trampled into the ground, attracted rats. As the rats became a problem, the slaughterhouse owners decided to use poisoned bread to kill them off, as soon the floor was littered with floor meat, spit, chewed tobacco, poisoned bread, and a lot of dead rats. But why waste all those quality ingredients? the slaughterhouse owners must have asked themselves. So, all of the rubbish on the floor was added into the meat grinder and turned into “special” discounted sausage. 

As America was at the peak of industrialism, Sinclair intended to evoke the readers' emotions in an attempt to encourage the American public to initiate change in the factory system. He went so far as to go undercover in several meat-packing plants in Chicago, explaining the vividness of many scenes in the novel; they were based on true events. Contrary to his intentions, however, the American public was more appalled by the meat-packing process than by Jurgis' tribulations. He later remarked that “I aimed at the public’s heart, and by accident I hit it in the stomach.” The gruesome process described in the book caused such a huge public response that the following year, 1906, the US Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act were passed with President Roosevelt's urging, ensuring that the slaughterhouse conditions would improve.

Sources:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CsBh1TyWSM4
https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Jungle-novel-by-Sinclair
https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/jungle/

Tuskegee Institute

        Tuskegee Institute, at its heart, was founded in order to offer African Americans a chance at bettering themselves. One of the key founders, Booker T. Washington, believed in the idea of blacks empowering themselves and using their large population in the South as a tool to do so. He wanted all blacks to take a stand and empower themselves economically which would eventually get them political power as well.

The Tuskegee Institute, founded in 1881 by Lewis Adam and George W. Campbell, sat in the heart of Alabama and had one main goal: providing blacks with an opportunity unity for a quality education. This institution sat in the heart of Alabama, a state with a large black population but still oppressive laws targeted against blacks. The funding for this school was obtained after W. F. Foster, a white man running for the state senate, struck a deal with Lewis Adam. Adam, being a former slave, had a tight connection with the black community, so Foster and Adam agreed that Foster would make sure the government allocated money for this school and, in turn, Adam would secure the black vote for Foster. As a result, Foster won the election and was able to allocate $2000 for the creation of the Tuskegee Institute with Booker Washington as it’s first principal.

The Tuskegee Institute acted as both an academic and vocational education institution. This means that the institute offered its students typical academic classes (such as learning about history) along with teaching them skills in order to obtain a technical job in the near future. As part of the goal of teaching life skills, the institute even made students built their own buildings, make their own food, and provide their own basic necessities. This all fits under Washington’s goal of empowering  blacks and giving them a chance to rise economically, socially, and politically.

        Although being created over 100 years ago, the Tuskegee Institute still stands as a leading example of a predominantly black university. It eventually got full university status in 1985 and still offers thousands of degrees yearly in order to prepare its students for life through an academic and technical education. It has changed US history so much that it’s even designated as a National Historic Site--the only black college with this distinction. Even though Booker T. Washington died many decades ago, his vision still resides in the Tuskegee Institute to this day.

Sources:
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/tuskegee-university-1881/
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/odyssey/educate/bookert.html

Image:
https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/tuskgallery/tuskoutsidelg3.jpg 

Black Caricatures in America

       Black people were stereotypically portrayed as ignorant, lazy, primitive, illogically superstitious, happy at work or even musical. The most common archetype of black people was the dark or coon. White performers would darken their skin through shoes polish and other means, and perform the racist caricatures on stage, enforcing the already existing negative stereotypes of black people. They would wear makeup to exaggerate the size of their lips and noses, imitating stereotypical African features.
       Caricatures of black people were not just used to enforce white peoples opinions of black people, but also to enforce how black people saw themselves. The stereotypes used at the time impacted black and white people psychologically in how they perceived black people as a group and on an individual basis.
        There were many different characters that would be used. Below are the most common examples  of 20th century black stereotypes.

Sambo, Golliwog, Pickaninny

      The sambo stereotype was popularized in 1898 by the book The Story of Little Black Sambo. The original book suggested that Sambo lived in India, however this fact was overlooked by many American readers and the name Sambo was then used to refer to black men negatively. Sambo's were portrayed as very happy, laughing, lazy, irresponsible, and somewhat carefree. 

      Golliwog was a slur that was mostly popular in Great Britain and Australia. Golliwog is typically a doll of some form, and "Golly dolls" usually have typical black face features (black skin, big lips, big noses)

      The term Pickaninny was usually reserved as an archetype for young black children. The word comes from the Portuguese word for small child, however it was later used to describe black and indigenous children. Forms of the world are still used and are not derogatory in some languages. 

Mammy and Jezebel

      Mammy was a stereotype that arose during slave time. This stereotype is the most famous representation of black women at the time. She was dedicated to the white family she worked for, a confidant, somewhat trusted, but never equal. Mammy was in charge of the domestic life at the her white household, and was almost always very invested in raising the white children

      Jezebel was the opposite of the the idealized victorian woman at the time. The ideal victorian woman was reserved, poised, never promiscuous and of course white. Jezebel was promiscuous, an idea that stemmed from European opinions of African women when they first encountered them in the far warmer climates of Africa and European took the semi nudity of the African women as sexual deviancy. Jezebel was also portrayed as anti christian and therefore black women was seen as immoral. Jezebel was potrayed as having a large sexual appetite which propagated the idea that Black women could not be raped, because they would always enjoy sexual activity, regardless of consent. The image of Jezebel was even used as evidence and justification in court for a white man raping a black woman. 

       The Jezebel and Mammy were contrasted versions of black female caricatures. Darker skinned black women would fall into either category, depending on the white people in their lives. 

      

The Tragic Mulatta

       This stereotype was popular in films and it was used by white people as a cautionary tale for black people. Whereas the stereotypes of mammy and jezebel were typically dark skinned women, the tragic mulatta was portrayed as light skinned woman who could pass for white if she wished. This stereotype would depict these women as obsessed with getting ahead and obsessed with their ultimate goal which would always be to marry a white man, and therefore become fully white, "shedding" their African heritage through marriage and children. She is shown as promiscuous, mean, unsympathetic. She is hated because she is black and white and therefore cannot be accepted, and yet wishes to be white. 

Savage and Uncle Tom

       The savage was used to depict black people and African's as primitive, simple and sometimes even cannibals. Common images that incorporated the savage where white people being captured, cooked and eaten by black people. Savages would have lip plates or bones on their bodies. Black women would have overly large butts and bare breasts, once again enforcing the idea of promiscuous black women. The savage came directly from people who would argue for the necessity of slavery, citing the images as reasons why black people needed to be enslaved and was incapable of self care. 

        The stereotype of Uncle Tom was created to portray black men as submissive and unintelligent, more interested in the welfare of white people than black people. Based off of the book, Uncle Tom's Cabin, this is a particularly damaging stereotype that persists today. Historically, this stereotype was used by white people to keep down black men who tried to better themselves. They would be labeled a "sellout" or "house Negro". 

       This stereotype was is particularly detrimental to the black community, because today this term is used by white and black people to describe black men who hold opinions that aren't in line with the mainstream black community, valuing education, bettering themselves or are seen as being "too white" "white washed" or anything that could be perceived as thinking that you are "better than". Uncle Tom continues to be a common insult today. It is commonly thrown at black people who identify as conservatives in their politics. 

Sources:
https://thepolicy.us/the-myth-of-the-racist-conservative-and-the-uncle-tom-6b788afedcbe
https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/popular-and-pervasive-stereotypes-african-americans
https://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/coon/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Tom
https://library.stanford.edu/collections/caricatures-black-americans-sheet-music-1861-1947
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/27/arts/mammy-jars-black-history-month.html

Rakers of Muck (Muckrakers)

During the Progressive Era, new problems were coming up as well as old, and who was there to speak out against these injustices? The Muckrakers. Journalists who published newspapers or books bringing certain topics into the spotlight that most people would prefer to keep under wraps.

The term itself came from Theodore Roosevelt who thought these journalists were going too far. Despite being considered a progressive president, Roosevelt gave a speech in 1906 called “The Man With the Muck Rake” where he claimed that there was a time for seeking the truth, and times one must overlook it a carry on.

"Now, it is very necessary that we should not flinch from seeing what is vile and debasing. There is filth on the floor, and it must be scraped up with the muck rake; and there are times and places where this service is the most needed”, states Roosevelt, “But the man who never does anything else … becomes, not a help but one of the most potent forces for evil."

An example of a Muckraker is Jacob Riis, an immigrant from Denmark who worked as a police reporter for various papers and magazines. Through his platform, he was able to depict and advocate for the slums in lower Manhattan. "How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York," and "The Children of the Poor," were two of multiple books he wrote about tenet life and sanitation. His writing led to the Tenement House Commission and improved sanitation laws.

Another noteworthy Muckraker was John Spargo who immigrated to the US in 1901 from England. He joined the socialist party and advocated specifically for child worker rights. In 1906, he wrote a book about how dangerous it was for boys working in the coal mines. The book was called “The Bitter Cry of Children” and was well known around America.

Overall, Muckrakers were seen as intense and radical, but by speaking up they were able to get many laws and reforms in place that might have no gotten formed without their initiation.

Sources
http://www.ushistory.org/us/42b.asp
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/rise-to-world-power/age-of-empire/a/muckrakers
https://www.thoughtco.com/who-were-the-muckrakers-104842

Alice Roosevelt

The Life of Alice Roosevelt


Alice Roosevelt Longworth was born on February 12, 1884 being the first child of Theodore Roosevelt. Her mother died two days after her birth causing her to be reared by her aunt Her aunt, Anna or more well known as “Bamie” or “Bye”, had a significant impact on Alice’s life. Alice would later go on to say "If auntie Bye had been a man, she would have been president." Yet, after Theodore remarried to Edith Kermit Carow, Alice started living with her dad and stepmother. Alice had a tense relationship with her stepmother as Edith had known Alice’s biological mother before being married to Theodore. Alice also did not get a lot of attention from her father as he was an extremely busy man. From a combination from her strained relationship with her step mother and the lack of attention from her father, she grew into an independent woman who was self confident and calculated every move.

Alice came into the public spotlight when her father rose to the presidency in 1901 after the assasination of former president William McKinley. At the age of 17, she became a fashion icon and her favorite color, blue grey, become known as “Alice blue”. Alice was also a rebel and did not follow many of the social norms of women at the time. In 1905, she joined her dad and 23 other congressmen on one of the largest diplomatic trips of the time to Japan, Hawaii, China, the Philippines, and Korea. In addition to joining her dad on this important mission, she often interrupted his white house meetings in order to add her own political advice.

Right after Alice’s return from her diplomatic mission abroad, she married Nicholas Longworth III, a Republican House US House of Representatives member from Cincinnati, Ohio. Longworth would eventually rise to the Speaker of the House. In 1912, Alice would support her father’s Bull Moose presidency while her husband remained loyal to William Howard Taft. This would ultimately lead to tensions in their marriage. These tensions were further created as Alice had many affairs in her marriage. Yet, Longworth would die in 1931 ending the tension in the marriage. Even after his death, Alice would go on to have an even more important impact in history.

After her married years, Alice campaigned against her fifth cousin, once removed, Franklin D. Roosevelt. During these years, the Great Depression was occurring, and Alice appeared in tobacco commercials to raise money. She also published an autobiography, Crowded Hours. The book sold extremely well and had very good reviews as well.

Overall, Alice had a very intriguing and important life in politics as well as the social scene. She contributed immensely to her father’s election and offered key insight to issues during his presidency. She also became famous fashion icon and seemed to prosper even during the Great Depression.




Source https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alice-Roosevelt-Longworth





https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Roosevelt_Longworth

Madam C. J. Walker

        Sarah Breedlove was orphaned while a young girl, and already a widow when she was just twenty years old. She was married three times, two ended due to death, but she left her second husband in order to come across more opportunities for herself. During Breedlove’s last marriage to Charles J. Walker, she changed her name as well as her daughter changed her last name to match that of her stepfather. Now known as Madam C. J. Walker, she stopped selling hair products for another lady and started her own company that was tailored for African American hair types.


       White cosmetic companies at the time were advocating for hair straighteners for African American ladies, but Walker resented that and instead went to individuals explaining to them what would be healthiest for their hair. She helped other women by training them to be “hair culturists” which provided more people with opportunities and helped spread her product. As well as having jobs, the “Walker System” ensured a large commission so that these women could also provide for their families, much like Madam Walker’s original goal was.


      She and her daughter continued to expand their growing business, opening offices, businesses, and salons in Pittsburg, Indianapolis, and Harlem. Walker was the first self-made female millionaire, white or black. With this wealth she let her family live luxuriously with multiple large homes and owned several different automobiles.

        Since Walker came from nothing, she understood how hard it is to be successful and safe, so she put a lot of her funds towards philanthropic organizations. This included different churches and religious organizations, giving women scholarships and advocating for black self help. 

        Her company continued to grow even after she passed away in 1912 due to kidney failure. They expanded into the Caribbean in places like Cuba and Jamaica.

Sources: 

https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/madame-c-j-walker 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker

Oscar Micheaux and "Within Our Gates"

Oscar Micheaux, born January 2, 1882, is regarded as the most prominent African American filmmaker during the time. He was a prominent producer of race film in which he would tackle complex subjects, including race relations and the politics of the time. In contrast to most films which would only star white actors, race films were produced primarily for an all back audience including exclusively featuring black actors. One prominent film, Within Our Gates, would depict racial violence as well as the widespread lynching of African Americans during the time including Jim Crow Laws, The Great Migration, and the revival of the Ku Klux Klan.

The film describes the life of Sylvia Landy, an African American woman who is visiting her cousin Alma in the north. There, Larry, Alma’s step brother, attempts to woo Sylvia but is quickly rejected. Sylvia soon return to the south where she finds a rural school in desperate need of funding and thus she returns to the north in search of money. In Boston, Sylvia is hit by a car, the owner of which is Elena Warwick, a wealthy philanthropist who agrees to donate $50,000 dollars in order to save the school. In addition, Sylvia falls in love with Dr. Vivian, a man who chases after a thief and recovers her purse. Ultimately, in the climax of the film, Alma tells Dr. Vivian of Sylvia’s past, in which a flashback reveals that she was raised by a poor black family. In addition, it is revealed that a young Sylvia was falsely accused by murder by the white landlord, Gridlestone. In a raid by a white mob that attacks the Land family, Gridlstone’s brother is close to raping Sylvia, but notices a birthmark on her chest. Sylvia is her mixed race daughter. Gridlestone’s brother had married a local black woman and he was the one that had paid for her education.

Ultimately, Micheaux’s film was created to defend and challenge the stereotype of African America during the time period. In his eyes, the white people were the true rapists and savages and the blacks were the true victims of the brutality of whites. In addition, although commonly thought of as a response to Birth of a Nation, Michueaux states that it was actually created independently to address the highly unstable societal race relations at the time. Overall, Oscar Michaeux will be remembered as a highly influential filmmaker who challenged society’s prejudice against African Americans.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Micheaux#Significant_films

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_film

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Within_Our_Gates#Plot

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Within_Our_Gates#Plot

Madam C. J. Walker

Madame C. J. Walker was the first free-born child in her family.  Born as Sarah Breedlove on a cotton plantation in Louisiana, she was the child of two former slaves who had recently been freed.  Both her parents died before she turned 7 and she was left as an orphan at a young age.  She married young at the age of 14 but was left a widow by 20 with a young child.  She moved to St. Louis and worked as a laundress.  She met her second husband, Charles J. Walker while in St. Louis.

Breedlove suffered from hair loss in the 1890s and wanted to find a treatment.  She started to experiment with her own formulas to try to cure her condition.  She moved to Denver in 1905 and worked as a cook for a pharmacist, which is where she learned chemistry that helped her perfect an ointment to help with dandruff.  She came up with a system of scalp treatments, ointments, and creams that she marketed specifically for African American women.  It became known as "The Walker System."  She sold her products directly to black women and used a very personal approach that won women over.  She trained thousands of African American women as beauty culturalists and gave them a job opportunity and a chance to make money.  She sold her hair and skin products through these door to door saleswomen and employed over 3,000 people in the selling and manufacturing of her products.  The headquarters for her company ended up being in Indianapolis because she was drawn to the black business community there.  She expanded internationally into the Carribean and Central America in 1913.

This booming business made her a very rich woman. She became the first self-made female millionaire, black or white. She had a total worth of over one million dollars including her multiple properties.  She became known as a philanthropist in the community.  She paid for 6 African American students to attend Tuskegee University and donated 5,000 dollars to the NAACP's anti-lynching efforts.  She bequeathed 2/3 of the future net profits of her company to charity and gave thousands to various schools and people.  She died in 1919 and Madam C. J Walker Manufacturing Company ceased operations in 1981. 


https://www.biography.com/inventor/madam-cj-walker
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/madame-c-j-walker
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Madam-C-J-Walker
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/madam-cj-walker

Americas First Flag

      The Gadsden Flag is known to most Americans. A yellow background with a timber rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike. Below the snake, the words DONT TREAD ON ME, in bold font. The flag was designed in 1775 during the American revolution by Christopher Gadsden. The rattlesnake holds a special significance in American history, it can only be found in the United States, particularly in the area where the 13 colonies were at the time.

      It was first depicted politically in Benjamin Franklin, when he sent a letter to Great Britain which he published in the Pennsylvania Gazette, regarding Great Britains policy of sending criminals to the Americas. Franklins satirical letter suggested that to "thank" the British for this, Americans should send rattlesnakes in over to Britain. He coined the image a second time in the French and Indian War, when he published his famous woodcut with the snake representing the colonies. This was the first of thousands of American political cartoons published in an American newspaper. The rattlesnake quickly became a symbol of freedom as Americans started to identify as increasingly separate from the British Empire.

      Before the revolution, the Sons of Liberty was a prominent group in promoting anti-British sentiment within the colonies. Christopher Gadsden was one of the leaders of the Sons of Liberty. Born in South Carolina, Gadsden had been sent to school in England as a boy. He returned to America in 1740, becoming a prominiet figure in American politics, praising congress's Declaration of Rights and other causes that were focused on separating from Great Britain. He soon became a leading member of the sons of liberty and this is when he designed the famous flag.
      The flag was given to the commander in chief of the Navy, which was put on his flagship to represent America and was the used by the continental marines until they disbanded in 1783. The marines carried drums painted yellow depicting the flag and the logo DONT TREAD ON ME as they marched. This was the first recorded mention of the Gadsden flags symbolism.

       The Gadsden Flag has since been replaced by the classic stars and stripes, however it still remains as a symbol of freedom and of support for civil liberties. It has largely been adopted by the right wing-Libertarian party and the American Tea Party movement. Both parties platforms call for less government involvement, lower taxes, maximizing political freedom and a have a shared skepticism for authority.
        The flag has also made appearance in popular culture, most notably in the 2010 World Cup, when Nike used the image of a rattlesnake coiled around a soccer ball for the patriotic DONT TREAD ON ME campaign. The flag was seen at games, and became a rallying cry for American soccer fans.
         The Gadsden Flag holds an important meaning for me in my family, we have a model on our coffee table and magnets depicting the snake on the fridge. The Gadsden Flag represents freedom and the importance of the individual. Some would say it was the first flag of America and it has an important part in American history.




Sources:
https://www.usflag.org/history/gadsden.html
https://www.gadsden.info/history.html
https://www.flagpolesetc.com/blog/gadsden-flag-history-–-don’t-tread-on-me
https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-shifting-symbolism-of-the-gadsden-flag

Ohana Means Family (Annexing Hawaii)

Around the 1820’s, the United States began to want to spread their influence further internationally, but how? The US was late to the party you could say, for large amounts of territory were already claimed on other continents by various other countries. This included territory in South America, Africa and China, that the US was just not fast enough to lay claim to. But then an opportunity came along…

Before any battles for power occurred, the US was doing sugar trade with Hawaii. As the business continued, America was not selling their sugar at full value, creating unrest in Hawaii. With McKinley Tariff passed by Congress, if Hawaii became part of the US, their tariff would be significantly decreased. The problem was, Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii was not a fan of foreign affairs.

In 1893, Hawaiian sugar planters under Sanford Ballard Dole started to revolt against the queen. Liliuokalani became queen in 1891 but refused to recognize the constitution of 1887, instead, giving herself more power. During this time, they asked for assistance from the United States. Without permission from the president (newly inaugurated president Grover Cleveland), US marine troops came to the planter’s aid, dethroning the queen. Dole’s group, “Committee of Public Safety”, took control of Hawaii while Liliuokalani had to pay a fine and was sentenced to five years hard labor.

Upon hearing about the event, Cleveland was ashamed of America’s actions for he was an anti-imperialist. He was in favor of restoring the queen back to her throne while the American public was leaning towards annexing Hawaii.

The issue remained untouched until President Cleveland left office. Around 1896, the new Republican president, William McKinley, proposed a joint resolution to Congress (similar to how Texas was annexed). With the combined factors of the war in Spain and the concern that Japan would annex Hawaii first, Congress agreed to pass the joint resolution. By passing this, the United States could now use Hawaii to their advantage in the military and gain claim to territory in the Pacific.

Later down the road, on August 21, 1959, Hawaii became the 50th state in the United States of America.

Sources:


https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htm


http://www.ushistory.org/us/44b.asp


http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=3159


https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/americans-overthrow-hawaiian-monarchy

Panama Canal

The Panama Canal was one of President Theodore Roosevelt's greatest accomplishments. The idea was to connect the two oceans, Atlantic and Pacific, together in the effort to make sea transportation more efficient, allowing for a faster flow of goods between nations. However, this realization of connecting of the two oceans came many years before, as early as the 1500's.

Spain realized that the connection between the two oceans would prove beneficial to their country, and surveyed the land. However, the mountainous terrain and dense jungle proved impossible at the time, and the idea was dropped. Years later, France decided to attempt to create a canal. In 1880, France hired Count Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal in Egypt, to lead the project. The attempt was ditched after the incessant rain and the spread of disease made progress almost impossible.

Much later, the U.S. purchased the French assets in the canal for $40 million in 1902. The US recognized the Republic of Panama after provoking a Panamanian independence movement, and on November 18 the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed with Panama. This gave the US ownership of the panama canal zone. In exchange, Panama received $10 million and an annuity of $250,000 beginning nine years later. All of this let construction of the canal to begin. But the Americans realized the french equipment was in terrible condition and did not realize that making a sea level canal was almost impossible.

John Stevens, a railroad specialist, took over the project and ordered new equipment for construction and convinced Theodore Roosevelt that only a lock canal could work in the given circumstance. Roosevelt actually went to visit the canal when everything was going smoothly. However, a few months later, Stevens suddenly resigned, causing a major setback. Roosevelt immediately hired Army Corps engineer Lt. Col. George Washington Goethals, giving him authority over all administrative matters in the building zone. He enforced and crushed labor strikes and made additions to facilities to improve the quality of life for his workers.

There were many dangers involved with working at the Panama canal. It is estimated that 5600 deaths involved with the construction due to unexpected landslides and dynamite explosions. But finally, on August 15, 1914, the canal opened. It was the most expensive construction project in all of American history. Over 3.4 million cubic meters of concrete went into building the locks of the canal and nearly 240 million cubic yards of rock and dirt were excavated during the American construction phase. The impact of the Panama Canal was also immense, where global trading could be done more efficiently as the ships no longer had to go around the tip of South America to get from the pacific ocean to the Atlantic.


Sources:
https://www.history.com/topics/landmarks/panama-canal

The Life of Woodrow Wilson

Born on December 28, 1856, Woodrow Wilson from a young age experienced a Southern perspective of the Civil War and saw how the aftermath played out. He was very enthusiastic about learning and earned multiple degrees before even going to college. His political career grew very fast as he only spent two years as governor of New Jersey before his presidential election in 1912. In that election, he was nominated the Democratic candidate and ran against the Republican William Howard Taft. Because Roosevelt was upset with Taft's previous showing as president, Roosevelt ran as the Populist candidate. This split the Republicans in half, helping Woodrow Wilson become President.


Wilson made many reforms during his presidency. He favored small businesses and farmers so he passed laws banning child-labor and that established an 8-hour workday. He made very tough antitrust laws to break big businesses up into smaller units, won new protection to labor systems, and created the first lasting federal reserve loan system. He also became a supporter of the women's suffrage movements and in 1920 the 19th Amendment was passed which granted women the right to vote. Even though he made labor and women's rights reforms, he did not treat African-Americans well. He cut back some of the advancements made by African-Americans during the civil war by encouraging segregation.

During Wilson's presidency, World War I was also going on. He declared America a neutral country so that it could mainly be kept out of the war. However, America eventually joined the war after Germany ignored US neutrality by sinking their ships. After the war, Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points which was a statement with peace negotiations to try to end the war and prevent another future war.

Woodrow Wilson eventually died from a stroke on February 3, 1924, at the age of 67.

Source:
https://www.biography.com/us-president/woodrow-wilson

The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) formed from the American Federation of Labor’s (AFL) exclusion of immigrant factory-labor force, migrant timber and agricultural workers, women, blacks, and the chinese. The IWW goal was similar to the mission of the AFL as the IWW was trying to promote worker unity in order to combat big business and its employers. The IWW’s most well known leader was William “Big Bill” Haywood. Haywood grew up working in western mines and rose to popularity when he was kidnapped in 1906 and sent to Idaho. There, he was accused of murdering a former anti-union governor but was later found not guilty. Haywood would later be dubbed “the most dangerous man in America”. Haywood would go on to participate in many important labor battles like the Colorado Labor Wars, the Lawrence Textile Strike, and other textile strikes in Massachusetts and New Jersey.


Haywood was a strong believer in industrial unionism or the idea of having all workers under one union regardless of skill. As a result, he and other radical leaders created a manifesto detailing the goals and motives they had in mind. This manifesto was sent around the country and unionists who agreed with the ideas in the manifesto were invited to a convention in Brand’s Hall of Chicago. This convention took place at 10 a.m. on June 27, 1905 and was the beginning of the IWW union. The convention included socialists, anarchists, miners, industrial workers, and rebel workers. Haywood began the convention with a speech talking about giving the economic power of the country to the hands of the working class. Some of the other speakers included Eugene Debs, leader of the socialist party of America, and Mary Harris “Mother” Jones, an organizer for the United Mine Workers of America.

The IWW had many goals like letting workers control their wages and shorter working hours. They did not have a proper place to meet and discuss these issues, so they resorted to impromptu outdoor meetings. Yet, the city officials of Los Angeles, Spoken, Denver, and many more cities did not like the IWW meeting on the street and responded with laws that prohibited the IWW from having these outdoor meetings. Instead of backing down, the IWW insisted that it had a right to freedom of speech and continued to hold these meetings. Many IWW unionists were jailed, but eventually they wore down the city officials allowing for their freedom of speech rights to be recognized. However, even in voicing their opinion, their goals of controlling their wages and shorter working hours were not addressed.

By 1912, the IWW had grown to nearly 100,000 people and was posing a greater and greater threat to capitalists. This caused state legislatures to pass a series of anti-syndicate laws stating that possessing an IWW red membership card was a crime. Yet, when World War I started, the IWW started to run into even more trouble. Even though many of the IWW members evaded being drafted, the war created laws like the Espionage Act. This act allowed the government to fine and jail people for interfering with military recruitment. Haywood eventually got arrested due to the Espionage Act but later skipped bail and fled to Russia.

Overall, even though the IWW amassed a membership of more than 100,000, its efforts to give increase rights for laborers were ultimately stifled by the government. However, the IWW created the concept of industrial unionism which would eventually be adopted by organizations like the Congress of Industrial Organization (CIO).












Sources:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Haywood


https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1050.html


https://spartacus-educational.com/USAiww.htm


Voices of Freedom and Give Me Liberty

War and Edison

Thomas Alva Edison was a famous American inventor who lived from 1847 until 1931, contributing greatly to America's Industrial Revolution and living through the Civil War, Gilded Age, Progressive Era, and even the Great War. In the years right before America's entry into the war, Edison, along with others such as Theodore Roosevelt, General Leonard Wood, and secretary of war Henry Stimson, advocated for military preparedness in America. Edison firmly believed that with the current trend of scientific advancements, war will only become more devastating in mortality rates. In October of 1915, Edison told the New York Times, "Science is going to make war a terrible thing –too terrible to contemplate. Pretty soon we can be mowing down men by the thousands or even millions almost by pressing a button." Such a statement would later drive Edison to invest large amounts of time in aiding America in its self-protection during times of war.

Contributing primarily to the US Navy and its defense against foreign attacks on American shores, Edison based his ideas of preparedness on accumulating ammunition and military vehicles. By 1917, Edison fully immersed himself in naval research, conducting various experiments to help US ships detect gun positions on foreign submarines, pinpoint incoming torpedoes, and camouflage merchant ships against enemy attacks. Other small scale inventions also included a telephone system for ships, extension ladders, and protection from smokestack gasses. Among his inventions were storage batteries for submarines and a chemical plant to compensate for new demand for chemicals that were once imported from Germany and England. However, despite the 48 inventions that Edison proposed over the course of eighteen months, the US Navy never truly invested enough time to push these ideas beyond their prototype stage.


Nevertheless, Edison's greatest contribution during this time was his creation of the Naval Research Laboratory, as a result of his firm beliefs in the importance of military innovations. Before such an establishment, the US only saw limited institutions devoted to the advancements of military equipment. Edison's proposal was accepted in the fall of 1915, with Congress funding the research facility with one million dollars, an equivalent of 21.1 million today, although it was still less than the expected five million. Because of America's later involvement in the war and conflict regarding some changes to Edison's original proposal, the laboratory did not begin construction until the 1920s, with its grand opening in 1923. Nevertheless, the laboratory was soon the first permanent facility dedicated to military research and development, opening a new sector of funding for Congress. Parallel to its contributions to the US military, this sector would soon see groundbreaking inventions such as radars, nuclear weapons, GPS, and even the Internet. Among his famous contributions to society such as the invention of the lightbulb and discovery of the uses of electricity, Edison's contributions during the First World War will also leave a lasting legacy in America's military.



Sources:
https://www.nps.gov/edis/learn/historyculture/thomas-edison-in-world-war-i.htm
http://edison.rutgers.edu/WWIlists.htm
http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/07/25/the-20-most-influential-americans-of-all-time/slide/thomas-edison/

The Jungle

The Jungle, by Upton Sinclair, was a fiction novel written to illustrate real conditions of immigrants in the United States and how they were exploited. While his main intent was to promote socialism in the United States, most people were more interested in the book’s descriptions of the meatpacking industry. The book follows the life of a Lithuanian immigrant who lives in a small town in Chicago, but the town is described as an “urban jungle”. The immigrant’s family faces many hardships and deaths as they work in horrible conditions, are scammed, and eventually some resort to alcohol and drugs. Sinclar was upset though because the public was concerned with food quality after reading the novel. Additionally, at first, Roosevelt hated Sinclair and the book because Sinclair advocated for socialism. However, after he read the novel, he decided to send the Labor Commissioner and a social worker to Chicago and investigate the meatpacking factories. Even though owners were aware of the inspection and made efforts to make the factories clean, it was still deemed horrible. The Bureau of Animal Industry published a report that claimed Sinclair was absolutely wrong. However, Roosevelt sent the report by the Labor Commissioner and social worker to Congress. Eventually, Congress passed the Pure Food and Drug Act, which banned mislabeled or adulterated foods and drugs. This eventually led to the creation of the FDA, or the Food and Drug Administration. The report also led to the Meat Inspection Act, which banned adulterating or mislabeling meat products. It also created regulations on sanitary conditions in meat factories. While all of these regulations were good, in the end, Sinclair was not happy. As he stated in 1906, “I aimed at the public’s heart, and by accident I hit it in the stomach,” a statement expressing that rather than caring about the workers who had to suffer and having empathy, people cared more about their food.

Sources:

https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1901-1950/Pure-Food-and-Drug-Act/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jungle

https://modernfarmer.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/beef-trust-hero.jpg